Settlement Rate Increase in Organic Soils Following Cyclic Loading
Publication: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 147, Issue 2
Abstract
Postshaking settlements observed during centrifuge tests of model levees resting atop soft compressible peat are compared with numerical settlement solutions. Two large-scale () tests and one small-scale () test are analyzed. The models included extensive instrumentation consisting of pore pressure sensors, accelerometers, bender elements, and displacement transducers to measure levee response during and after the application of scaled ground motions at the container base. Postcyclic settlement records suggested an increase in settlement rates within peat on cyclic loading compared with preseismic settlements due to the combined effects of excess pore pressure generation and secondary compression. The observed settlements were compared with the predictions of a one-dimensional nonlinear consolidation code that follows an implicit finite difference formulation. The code includes nonlinear compressibility and permeability properties and models secondary compression strain rate as a function of soil state rather than of time. Secondary compression was found to be the largest contributor to levee settlement. Further, cyclic straining was found to increase the secondary compression rate after earthquake shaking. Incorporating secondary compression reset into settlement predictions resulted in close agreement with measurements, whereas failing to consider secondary compression reset resulted in substantial underprediction of experimental settlement records.
Get full access to this article
View all available purchase options and get full access to this article.
Data Availability Statement
All data used during this study are publicly available in the DesignSafe CS online repository in accordance with funder data retention policies.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. CMMI 1208170. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The writers acknowledge the valuable assistance of the UC Davis centrifuge team.
References
Adams, J. I. 1963. “A comparison of field and laboratory consolidation measurements in peat.” In Proc., 9th Huskeg Research Conf., 117–135. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.
Atwater, B. F., and D. F. Belknap. 1980. “Tidal-wetland deposits of the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta.” In Proc., Quaternary Depositional Environments of the Pacific Coast: Pacific Coast Paleogeography Symp., edited by M. E. Field, A. H. Bouma, I. P. Colburn, R. G. Douglas, J. C. Ingle, 89–103. Los Angeles: The Pacific Section of the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists.
Berry, P. L., and T. J. Poskitt. 1972. “The consolidation of peat.” Geotechnique 22 (1): 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1972.22.1.27.
Bjerrum, L. 1967. “Engineering geology of Norwegian normally consolidated marine clays as related to settlements of buildings.” Geotechnique 17 (2): 83–118. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1967.17.2.83.
Boulanger, R. W., R. Arulnathan, L. F. J. Harder, R. A. Torres, and M. W. Driller. 1998. “Dynamic properties of Sherman Island peat.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 124 (1): 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:1(12).
Brandenberg, S. J. 2017a. “iConsol.js: JavaScript implicit finite-difference code for nonlinear consolidation and secondary compression.” Int. J. Mech. 17 (6): 04016149. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000843.
Brandenberg, S. J. 2017b. “iConsol.js: Nonlinear consolidation.” Accessed March 26, 2020. https://uclageo.com/Consolidation/.
Buisman, A. S. K. 1936. “Results of long duration settlement tests.” In Vol. 1 of Proc., First Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 103–106. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ.
Cappa, R., S. J. Brandenberg, and A. Lemnitzer. 2017. “Strains and pore pressures generated during cyclic loading of embankments on organic soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 143 (9): 04017069. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001721.
Cappa, R., S. Yniesta, S. Brandenberg, J. Stewart, and A. Lemnitzer. 2013. TEST 12L—RCK01: Part 1—9 m radius centrifuge experiment on clayey levee behavior under ground motions. Austin, TX: DesignSafe-CI. https://doi.org/10.4231/D34M91B6S.
Cappa, R., S. Yniesta, S. Brandenberg, J. Stewart, and A. Lemnitzer. 2014. TEST 14M—RCK02: Part 1—9 m radius centrifuge experiment on clayey levee behavior under ground motions. Austin, TX: DesignSafe-CI. https://doi.org/10.4231/D3W37KW7Z.
Deverel, A. J., S. Bachand, S. J. Brandenverg, C. E. Jones, J. P. Stewart, and P. Zimmaro. 2016. “Factors and processes affecting Delta levee system vulnerability.” San Francisco Estuary Watershed Sci. 14 (4): 3. https://doi.org/10.15447/sfews.2016v14iss4art3.
Dhowiana, W., and T. B. Edil. 1980. “Consolidation behavior of peats.” Geotech. Test. J. 3 (3): 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10881J.
Egawa, T., S. Nishimoto, and K. Tomisawa. 2004. “An experimental study on the seismic behavior of embankments on peaty soft ground through centrifuge model tests.” In Proc., 13th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering. Vancouver, BC: World Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
Gray, H. 1936. “Progress report on the consolidation of fine-grained soils.” In Vol. 2 of Proc., First Int. Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 138–141. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ.
Haan, E. D. 1996. “A compression model for non-brittle soft clays and peat.” Géotechnique 46 (1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1996.46.1.1.
Kishida, T., R. Boulanger, N. Abrahamson, M. Driller, and T. Wehling. 2009. “Seismic response of levees in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta.” Earthquake Spectra 25 (3): 557–582. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.3157259.
Kogure, K., H. Yamaguchi, Y. Ohira, and H. Ono. 1986. “Experiments on consolidation characteristics of a fibrous peat.” In Proc., Advances in Peatlands Engineering, 101–108. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.
Kramer, S. L. 2000. “Dynamic response of mercer slough peat.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 126 (6): 504–510. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2000)126:6(504).
Kutter, B., and N. Sathialingam. 1992. “Elastic-viscoplastic modelling of the rate-dependent behaviour of clays.” Géotechnique 42 (3): 427–441. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1992.42.3.427.
Lefebvre, G., P. Langlois, C. Lupien, and J. G. Lavallee. 1984. “Laboratory testing and in-site behavior of peat as embankment foundation.” Can. Geotech. J. 21 (2): 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1139/t84-033.
Lemnitzer, A., S. Brandenberg, S. Yniesta, and R. Cappa. 2020. “TEST 16—RCK16: 1 m radius centrifuge experiment on clayey levee behavior under ground motions.” In Proc., NEES-2012-1161: Levees and Earthquakes: Averting an Impending Disaster—Experiment 16. Austin, TX: DesignSafe-CI. https://doi.org/10.17603/ds2-68kx-qm64.
Lemnitzer, A., R. Cappa, S. Yniesta, and S. J. Brandenberg. 2015. “Centrifuge testing of model levees atop peaty soil: Experimental data.” Earthquake Spectra 32 (3): 1903–1924. https://doi.org/10.1193/032715EQS048.
Long, M., and N. Boylan. 2013. “Predictions of settlement in peat soils.” Q. J. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. 46 (3): 303–322. https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2011-063.
Lui, K., J. Xue, and M. Yang. 2016. “Deformation behaviour of geotechnical materials with gas bubbles and time dependent compressible organic matter.” Eng. Geol. 213: 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.09.003.
MacFarlane, I. C., and N. W. Radforth. 1965. “A study of the physical behavior of peat derivatives under compression.” In Proc., 10th Muskeg Research Conf. Montreal: University of Toronto Press.
Mesri, G., T. D. Stark, M. A. Ajlouni, and C. S. Chen. 1997. “Secondary compression of peat with or without surcharging.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123 (5): 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1997)123:5(411).
Meyer, Z., R. Coufal, M. Kowalow, and T. Szczygielski. 2011. “Peat consolidation—New approach.” Arch. Civ. Eng. 57 (2): 173–186. https://doi.org/10.2478/v.10169-011-0013-5.
Seed, H. B., and I. M. Idriss. 1970. Simplified procedures for evaluating soil liquefaction potential. Rep. No. EERC 70-9. Berkeley, CA: Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Univ. of California.
Shafiee, A. 2016. “Cyclic and post-cyclic behavior of Sherman Island peat.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of California, Los Angeles.
Shafiee, A., S. J. Brandenberg, and J. P. Stewart. 2013. “Laboratory investigation of the pre-and post-cyclic volume change properties of Sherman Island peat.” In Proc., Geo-Congress 2013: Stability and Performance of Slopes and Embankments III, 139–148. Reston, VA: ASCE.
Shafiee, A., J. P. Stewart, and S. J. Brandenberg. 2015. “Reset of secondary compression clock for peat by cyclic straining.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 141 (3): 02815001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001286.
Stokoe, K. H., J. A. Bay, B. L. Rosenblad, S. Huang, and M. Twede. 1994. In situ seismic and dynamic laboratory measurements of geotechnical materials at Queensboro bridge and Roosevelt island.. Austin, TX: Univ. of Texas at Austin.
Taylor, D. W., and W. Merchant. 1940. “A theory of clay consolidation accounting for secondary compressions.” J. Math. Phys. 19(1–4): 167–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/sapm1940191167.
Terzaghi, K. 1923. “Die Berechnung der Durchlässigkeitsziffer des Tones aus dem Verlauf der hydrodynamischen Spannungserscheinungen.” [In German.] Sitz. Akad. Wissen. Wien Math-Naturw. Kl. Abt. IIa. 132: 105–124.
Terzaghi, K., R. B. Peck, and G. Mesri. 1996. Soil mechanics in engineering practice. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley.
Tokimatsu, K., and T. Sekiguchi. 2007. “Effects of dynamic properties of peat on strong ground motions during 2004 Mid Niigata prefecture earthquake.” In Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering. Thessaloniki, Greece: Aristotle Univ. of Thessaloniki.
Wehling, T. M., R. W. Boulanger, R. Arulnathan, L. F. Harder, and M. W. Driller. 2003. “Nonlinear dynamic properties of a fibrous organic soil.” J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129 (10): 929–939. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:10(929).
Wilson, E., and M. B. Lo. 1965. “The progress of consolidation in an organic soil.” In Proc., Eleventh Muskeg Research Conf., 1–12. Washington, DC: National Research Council.
Zhang, L., and B. O’Kelly. 2013. “The principle of effective stress and triaxial compression testing of peat.” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 167 (1): 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.12.00038.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
Volume 147 • Issue 2 • February 2021
Copyright
© 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
History
Received: Mar 30, 2020
Accepted: Aug 13, 2020
Published online: Nov 17, 2020
Published in print: Feb 1, 2021
Discussion open until: Apr 17, 2021
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
Citations
Download citation
If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.